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Angola: Colonization and Struggle for Independence

Angola: Colonization and Struggle for Independence

            Angola was one of many African countries that were manipulated and taken over the rule of European nations. Angola was first explored by the Portuguese in 1482 and through a series of treaties and wars; Portugal was able to conquer all of Angola by the beginning of the 20th century. Portugal’s main export from Angola were slaves sent to work on sugar plantations in São Tome (and island off the coast of Africa, near Angola) and Brazil. Although at first the Portuguese had the consent of Kingdom of Kongo African chiefs to participate in slave trade, pretty soon it started to be frowned upon. By the time slavery was out-lawed, an estimated three million people were removed by force (“Angola History” World Geography). Because much of the Portuguese’s plantation economy depended on forced labor, slavery became a huge market that led to the exploitment of the natives. Just as any oppressed group would be expected to react, the natives retaliated.

Although the whole nation wanted independence, the people’s cultural and political differences got in the way. The Northern part of the country organized a nationalist group called The National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA) led by Holden Roberto. The Southern group called The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), and was led by Jonas Malheiro Savimbi. Finally, the third main nationalist group was called The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), and was led by António Agostinho Neto who later died and José Eduardo dos Santos replaced. Even after Angola was liberated in November 11, 1975, the power-struggle between each group on who would be the next ruler of the newly born nation continued until the late 1990s and even early 2000s when the conflict finally died down.

To the Portuguese, Luanda was a highly important port for their slave trade. Even though they were defeated and driven out of Angola by the Dutch between 1641 and 1648, Portugal regained its control (Keith Lye and The Diagram Group). Luanda was also where the MPLA decided to host their first uprising against the Portuguese, although they were defeated. This did not stop the constant desire for freedom to diminish in the hearts of the natives, and in fact only helped give them more of an incentive to fight back. Yet as each party started to get international allies, the issue soon began to turn into a power-struggle between supporting countries: U.S. and Soviet Union. MPLA was supported by Cuba (who supplied them with troops) and the Soviet Union. FNLA had links with the U.S., and UNITA was backed by China and South Africa. By 1976, MPLA was recognized as the legitimate government on Angola as it had control of most of Angola (“Background Note: Angola” U.S. Department of Diplomacy in Action). Yet constant competition and tension kept increasing between UNITA and MPLA (FNLA eventually disappeared as it lost support) with U.S. and misplaced farmers due to MPLA reform now supporting UNITA. In 1988, however, Cuba and South Africa agreed on retreating their troops and decreasing their involvement in the Angolan conflict. In these negotiations, the U.S. and South Africa refused to accept the MPLA governments until Cuban troops were withdrawn. The Cuban troops had been a great contributing factor to the success of MPLA. Yet, the Soviet Union and Cuba were not ready to negotiate until the South Africans in Namibia were out. South African’s goal in Namibia had been to prevent hostile regime from taking over (“Angola History” World Geography). In 1989 and in 1991, UNITA and MPLA signed a cease-fire and an agreement on a multiparty democracy that was broken after the multiparty election in 1992.  The leader of MPLA, José Eduardo dos Santos, won the election and Jonas Savimbi (the leader of UNITA) called the election unfair and faulty, resuming the civil war (“Background Note: Angola” U.S. Department of Diplomacy in Action). Attempts at peace were made by MPLA, like offering to the Savimbi be the vice-president, but Savimbi only kept breaking the agreement guidelines. The UN even stepped in to see that they were obedient to the peace agreement signed by both parties in 1994 by sending a peacekeeping force to Angola in 1995 (Keith Lye and the Diagram Group). In 1999 the civil war was started again, and the Angolan army launched a massive offensive and recaptured the major cities held under Savimbi. This only continued the civil war and made Savimbi more desperate not to give in to MPLA. Savimbi died in 2002 while in combat which definitely let peace take its course because on April 4, 2002 the Angolan government and UNITA signed the Luena Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) (“Background Note: Angola” U.S. Department of Diplomacy in Action). This stated that UNITA had to recommit to the terms of their past peace agreement framework. By August that same year, UNITA demobilized all its military personnel and the UN’s peacekeeping force was retreated. UNITA and MPLA kept both of their parties after the war but only for government purposes. Ever since 2003, Angolans have been trying to rebuild their nation’s economy that fell apart during the prolonged civil war. Yet now they finally get to experience the freedom that they had won since 1975, but because of the national groups never had time to enjoy it.


Bibliography

“Angola: History.” World Geography. 2009. ABC-CLIO.  30 Apr. 2009 <http://www.worldgeography.abc-clio.com>.

This source really gave me a good understanding on the civil war in Angola and what caused it because it was so detailed. It helped me have a good general understanding of my topic and be able to use it to know what more to research.

“Background Note: Angola.” U.S. Department of Diplomacy in Action. Apr. 2009.  28 Apr. 2009 <http://www.state.gov/////‌.htm>.

This source was helpful in summing up what happened during Angola’s civil war and why some countries were even involved in it. It also told me about how it ended whereas my other sources only took me through the late 1990s and gave me current general information about Angola today to contrast with how much the civil war affected it.

Lye, Keith, and The Diagram Group. “ANGOLA Republic of Angola.” Encyclopedia of African Nations and Civilizations. New York: Facts on File, Inc., 2002. 102-105.

This source was very useful in giving me a list of several groups of people that were impacted throughout Portugal’s involvement in Angola including Angola’s major political leaders and background information about them. It also provided me with a lot of visuals and maps to get an understanding of where everything that I was reading about what occurring.

Tvedten, Inge. “Angola Under the Portuguese.” Afterword. Angola Struggle for Peace and Reconstruction. By Tvedten. N.p.: Westview Press, 1997. 16-23.

This source was helpful because it gave me a detailed explanation of how Portugal came to control Angola. It also showed me how the perspective of King Alfonso, ruler of Kongo, changed as the Portuguese started exploiting the natives.


Last Updated by Samantha Rivera 5/22/09